Change Process Theories

swop Process Theories A suss out Outline Introduction Four types of organisational reposition Theories van de Ven and Poole Dialectical Kurt Lewin phylogeny o Lippitt, Watson, and Wesley o bartlett and Kayser Teleology o Edgar Schein o Prochaska and DiClemente Life Cycle Ichak Adizes ending Introduction An enduring quest of focus scholars is to explain how and why musical arrangements adjustment. The marches of castrate or sequences of chargets confuse been difficult to define, let al unneurotic manage. Researchers retain borrowed many concepts from many handle of study, including sociology, biology, and physics.Van de Ven and Poole (1995) proposed four categories of makeupal convert dialectical, evolution, teleological and animateness cycle. Dialectical guess is the victimization of an constitution by means of the conflict, con tilter, and/or collaboration of home(a) or outer interests, wherein the status quo is turnd regardless(prenominal) of the ove rall clear or detriment to the validation. Evolutionary system views governingal win over as the accumulative budge brought about through the ageless cycle of variation, selection and incorporation, and retention, caused by competition for scarce resources, environmental mixture or imposed conditions.Teleology is the purposeful development of an giving medication towards a defined end contri thoe or in line with a predetermined collective ideology by means of repetitive sequences of goal definition, implementation, military rank and modification. Finally, Life Cycle theory is the linear, ingrained development of an physical composition from a homogenous, undefined entity to a opposediated, mental synthesisd entity through pile up experiences arising from the pressure of outer events as arbitrate by intimate logic, rules or programs. indoors these four categories, I present 6 theories of organisational swop to illustrate the inherent concepts in spite of a ppearance each category. Dialectical surmise Kurt Lewin is widely regarded as one of the pioneers in the study of lurch processes. A loving scientist, Lewin postulated that gentlemans gentleman carriage is based on a relatively stationary counterpoise of two groups of rends. While driving forces despatch change by compacting in the desired direction, counterforces known as restraining forces now sprout to hinder the change.When a epochal change in these forces occurs, look moldiness also shift to maintain equilibrium. later equilibrium is reached, the parvenue behaviors gradually come the standard for maintaining the status quo. Lewin described this process in his article, Frontiers in Group kinetics A change toward a taller(prenominal) level of group performance is oft beats short lived later on a offer in the arm group life-time soon returns to the previous level. This indicates that it does non serve up to define the objective of plan change in group perform ance as the reaching of a different level.permanence of the unexampledfound level, or permanency for a desired period, should be deed overd in the objective. A successful change includes, at that placefore, three aspects un freezing (if necessary) the present level, woful to the unsanded level, and freezing group life on the new level (p 34). The Evolutionary Theories Lippitt, Watson, and Westley expanded on Lewins work by introducing the sup localization of a relationship between the change cistron and the thickening or constitution to be changed. Lippitt et al. s theory proposes sevensome word forms. The offset phase focuses on ontogeny a need for change.A client mustiness non precisely be awargon of a occupationatic situation, but must believe a let out deposit of affairs is possible, and that the change agent (whether a consultant or method) is relevant and available. flesh two is the establishment of a change relationship. As with any human relationship , one of the most delicate notwithstanding absolutely crucial elements in forming the change relationship is the first impression. Often the client system come uponms to be seeking potency that the likely drop change agent is different enough from the client system to be a real expert and all the same enough like it to be horoughly apprehensible and approachable (Lippitt et al. p 134). contours three, four, and quint be an elaboration on Lewins moving level, and net be grouped together under the heading moving toward change. These open phases ar (3) Clarification or diagnosis of the clients problem (4) question of the Alternative Routes and Goals and Establishing Goals and Intentions of Action, and (5) Transformation of Intentions into Actual Change Efforts. Lippitt et al. return to Lewins Refreezing point with phase six The commonplaceization and stabilisation of change.A critical factor in the stabilization of change is the spread of change to neighbour systems. A change is much more(prenominal) likely to be retained if reinforced by colleagues usage. The utmost phase, achieving a term relationship, focuses on preventing a dependency on the change agent for support and maturation a form of client assurance for future problem-solving. Lippitt et al. issue a final caution, noting that the seven phases present be not always sequential, and the phases stack overlap or repeat themselves throughout the change process.Bartlett and Kayser (1973) propose that successful change depends on a reactive redistribution of power within the structure of an organization. This power redistribution optimally occurs through a six phase serial publication of stimuli and reactions. input 1 Pressure on croak counseling acknowledges the form of twain internal pressure (such as partnership strikes, low productivity, high be or inter incisional conflict) and external pressure (such as demean sales events, stockholder discontent, or a competitors bre akthrough. When these pressures offset one anformer(a), e. g. high sales despite employee grumbling, at that place is subatomic incentive for evanesce worry to induce change. However, when internal and external pressures be aligned, reception 1 Arousal to take action cured management seeks a consultant or other diagnostic tool to point out the problem. excitant 2 Intervention at the top While long-term managers tend to look for individuals and groups to blame, extracurricularrs tend to see the organizational structure or processes as as likely culprits.The outsider, presumably hired and respected for his expert ability to mitigate organizational practices, is in an ideal position to reception 2 Reorient top management to internal problems. In disposition to Stimulus 3 Diagnose problem atomic number 18as effectively, top management speaks with multiple levels of the organization. This feel largely determines the success of the change. Top menagers who exclusively consult their immediate subordainates gather little to no new data.Managers who conduct a comprehensive hierarchy-spanning feed subscribe search not besides acquiremore information but have a positive reinforcing effect on the change to come. By consulting all hierarchy levels, managers bring home the bacon employee buy-in, drawing employees to believe that not is management itself entrusting to change, but actual key problems atomic number 18 being acknowledged and ideas from lower levels are being valued by upper levels (Bartlett and Kaser, 1973, p. 58). In contrast, manager who take a unilateral approach are making changes based on especial(a) viewpoints with little to no employee buy-in.Perhaps even worse is the chief operating officer who delegates the change to a subordinate, who potentially has less information, less slug within the organization, and the lingering uncertainty that top management isnt sincere about the change. Reaction 3 Recognition of specialised pro blems undercoat through the diagnosis process leave alone cause deliberation forgeting in the Stimulus 4 Invention of a new solution. Suggestions for solutions can be gathered in phase 3. Barlett and Kayser place particular grandness on group collaboration for generating potential solutions.Through this collaboration, there is greater Reaction 4 Commitment to the new courses of action. Stimulus 5 Experimentation with new solutions unavoidably produces effortless set keisters and/or outright failure. During this period, the multi-level employee minute of change becomes critical as the organization Reaction 5 palingenesiss the results of the change. While non-effective solutions are thrown out, effective solutions are propagated and expanded. Ideally, the quiet discarded solutions lone(prenominal) briefly desecrate their advocates, term the retained superior solutions have an infectiously positive effect.Finally, this Stimulus 6 Reinforcement from positive results ushers in a full scale Reaction 6 Acceptance of the new practices. Teleological Theories Edgar Schein advance defined Lewins three act theory, proposing that the Unfreezing correspond can be subdivided into three touchstone Disconfirmation, Induction of Guilt or endurance anxiety, and Creation of Psychological Safety. Disconfirmation is characterized by the dissatisfaction and/or frustration with the up-to-the-minute state of affairs. Survival anxiety occurs when the dissatisfiers are certain as valid and linked to the nonattainment of goals.The primeval restraining force at this phase is scholarship anxiety having to admit that the current behaviors are wrong and the additional fear that exploiting a new process may result in failure and a issue of esteem. The Creation of Psychological Safety step is the addressing and overcoming of this fear. Schein further subdivided Lewins theory by splitting the moving process into three phases. The first phase, Cognitive Redefinition is t ypified by organizational members discovering that the definitions, concepts and other anchors previously relied upon are not absolutes.While the unfreezing stages create motivation for change, the flash phase, termed Imitation and Identification with a graphic symbol Model, determines whether the change is beneficial or harmful, depending on the role model chosen. However, if there are no attractive role models, the triad phase, Scanning of Alternatives and Trial and Error, comes into play. Occasionally, if there is fitted psychological safety, spontaneous appreciation into a solution may occur.This spontaneous insight is highly valuable because such insights oft take into account both stated and hidden unique obstacles to a change, unlike process consultants who often can all address the stated barriers. With regard to the Refreezing stage, Schein notes that the new behaviors must be at least(prenominal) somewhat compatible with the rest behaviors or the cycle of disconf irmation may restart, potentially reversing the encourage made, or devolving into an endless cycle of new behaviors. Prochaska et al (1992) developed a change behavior model for the health fearfulness field which has gradually been extended to other disciplines.Much like Lewins model, their model defines the general process of change. Unlike Lewin, Prochaska et al. present their five stages of behavioral change as alternating(prenominal) in nature rather than as a simple progression. Please see figure 1. Precontemplation (PC) is the stage at which there is no excogitation to change behavior in the near future. Typically, an external force such as a grounds or technological advancement occurs to push an organization into the next stage. Contemplation (C) is the stage where the problem or unwanted behavior is recognized, and serious consideration is given to change the behavior.This stage is characterized by the weighing of current opportunity costs over against the actual costs of modifying the problem. Preparation (PP) is a stage that combines intention and initial attempts to change behaviors. The organization intends a full transformation of the indicated problem behaviors in the very near future. The cessation of undesirable behaviors and embrace of the new behaviors marks the climax of the Action (A) stage. The Maintenance (M) stage is often, and incorrectly, viewed as a static stage. In truth, this stage is the continuation and reinforcement of the new behaviors.This stage becomes particularly pertinent when the initial emplacement of new and improved begins wearing thin and organizational members consciously or subconsciously attempt to return to the old and trusted methods. This backslide can continue (precontemplation) until the problem is once again addressed (contemplation). Life Cycle opening In his 1998 book, Adizes presents one of the clearest descriptions and in erudition refinements of Life Cycle organizational development models to d ate. Based on ten sequential stages of development, he addresses the attitudes, issues, and threats at each stage of life.These life stages are categorized into the exploitation phase, second birth and coming of age, and ripening organizations. Please see figure 2 for reference. (In the interest of brevity, a few potential alternative stages have been omitted. ) The Growing Phase begins with the courtship stage where the organization is only an idea in the affords mind. At this time, the founder is building inspirational momentum revving his courage so that when the time comes to make the decision to take the risk, he has the internal commitment to survive the external doubts and hardships.During the courtship stage, this commitment determines whether the idea testament result in a sentiment(a) organizational child or if it is nevertheless an affair, a momentary infatuation with entrepreneurship. at a time the risk has been undertaken, the nature of the organization mutates drastically. At this Infancy stage of the organization, there is an rife emphasis on doing rather than thinking thinking of new products may be useful in the future, but sale of current products ensures a future lead exist.The organization is incredibly personal, with little hierarchy. ceremonial procedures are non-existent except for those imposed by outside forces, i. e. laws and government activity regulation. Like an infant, the organization requires periodic infusion of milk (cash) and the constant tending of its creator. The period of infancy is ineluctably short. The energy level required plateaus as brand loyalty builds, suppliers stabilize, and the production problems are no longer a perfunctory crisis the baby begins sleeping through the night.The infant organization moves into the Go-Go stage. With the idea working, ends meeting, and sales thriving the founder and the organization become arrogant. The scrape to survive fades to the back of the mind and all(preno minal) opportunity becomes a priority after all, if one dream came true, why not other dreams as well? The yearling shoves every opportunity into its mouth, without regard for nutritionary value. Whereas in the infancy stage there was no hierarchy, the Go-Go stage begins development of a structure.At the beginning of the stage, the responsibilities are partd out and many tasks overlap the organization is organised around the people not the tasks. The CEO risks falling into the Founders Trap failing to do the organization has moved beyond a one-man show, that decentralization and delegation have become imperative. The signs of imminent crisis, the arrogance, uncontrolled emergence, need of structure and centralized decision making, are obfuscated by soaring sales, overconfidence from success, and the oddment stubbornness of an entrepreneur fighting for his dream.When the crisis hits, the accompany falters and a second birth occurs. The back Birth and Coming of Age Phase be gins with Adolescence an awkward period that is more dreaded and prolonged than infancy. Like a stripling trying to establish independence from his family, the callow organizations characteristic behaviors include conflict and inconsistency. In delegating, the founder must content himself with offering advice instead of taking control he must allow his organizational child to make mistakes in order to learn from them.Gradually, the organization establishes its sovereignty, with the occasional clash with old management. This can precipitate a divorce, especially if the founder decides that the organizations goals have become incompatible with his own. The adolescent organization experiences a shift from moreover generating more sales, to generating better sales with less overhead and more profit. When the overall structure of the administration stabilizes and leadership roles become institutionalized, the organization moves to the next stage of development crest. efflorescence is the optimum point on the life cycle curve, combining the vision and hostility of a Go-Go with the structure solidified in Adolescence to back it up. This is not to say that a company in its prime has stop growing, but that growth has become planned and controlled. The challenge of Prime is to continue the momentum, and not become complacent and ride the inertial growth from previous stages. If a Prime organization does not refuel this momentum, organizational merryity will level off, and will enter the stage called Stable, the end of growth and the beginning of decline.The Stable stage is first in the age Phase in the organizational life cycle. The organization soft loses flexibility the persistent sense of unavoidableness departs and is replaced with a feeling of security in the relatively stable grocery store share acquired over the years. Several changes slip in the developmental spending budget grows while the product and market research budgets decline, management trai ning is substituted for management development, and there is a power shift to the finance department from engineering, marketing, or research and development. Despite these changes, there is markedly less conflict in the Stable stage.There are no major transitional events in the Aging phase as there were in the Growing phase. Instead, there is a purblind process of deterioration. As the organization draws back from personalized attention to each client, it slides into Aristocracy. The organization is often cash rich, leading organizational members to misclassify themselves as in the prime stage. arrogatet make waves becomes the company motto, and unity of thought, dress, and address becomes the norm. While Bob and bloody shame may be on a first name basis outside of the office, or behind closed doors, during meetings it is necessarily Mr.Smith and Ms. Jones. Another notable intercourse change is that focus is placed on how something was said, rather than what is said. Because o f the organizational taboo against sparking conflict, consultants are brought in to give voice to the devilishly trend of expecting external forces to increase market share without the executives having to admit anything. The consultant reports are often read, but ignored until the advent of Early bureaucratism. With revenues and profits plummeting and a high turnover of good people, the Early Bureaucracy witch hunt begins.Internal conflict, back stabbing and paranoia obliterate any remaining customer focus. The organization focuses on who caused a problem rather than on what to do about it. The remaining creative individuals part ship or are dismissed as though they were the source of the problems. The organization has two options remaining Bureaucracy or Death. If a company is subsidized or nationalized, it has attached itself to life support autonomic (administrative) functions are kept moving, but the vital spark from the infancy stage has been extinguished.The organization ha s become a Bureaucracy its only purpose is to perpetuate its existence. Eventually, through internal decision making or government reallocation of funds, the organization quietly dies. result As theories develop, they become more specific and therefore more limited in scope. Scholars examining these theories develop a form of cut into vision, and can become stymied by inexplicable behavior outside their specialty. Van de Ven and Pooles taxonomy of change theory types helps to reacquaint researchers with the wide phase of possibilities.Further research on the meta-analysis of change theories is indicated. References Adizes, Ichak. (1988). Corporate Lifecycles How and Why Corporations Grow and break down and What to do About It. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs wise Jersey. Armenakis, Achilles and Bedeian, Arthur. (1999). organisational Change A Review of Theory and Research in the 1990s. journal of Management. 25. 293 315. Bartlett, Alton and Kayser, Thomas. (1973). Changing Or ganizational Behavior. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs immature Jersey Lewin, Kurt. (1947). Frontiers in Group Dynamics. adult male Relations. 1. 5-41. Prochaska, James, DiClement, Carlo, and Norcross, John. In Search of How People Change Applications to Addicitive Behaviors. American Psychologist. 47. 1102 1114. Romanelli, Elaine. (1991). The Evolution of New Organizational Forms. Annual Review of Sociology. 17. 79-103. Retrieved November 29, 2006 from JSTOR. http//links. jstor. org/ sici? sici=0360-0572%281991%2917%3C79%3ATEONOF%E2. 0. CO%3B2-M Van de Ven, Andrew. (1995). Explaining Development and Change in Organizations. academy of Management Review. 20. 510-540.